When you think of Shoguns, you may think of the famous television show that won both the Emmy and Golden Globe, or you might also think of the Tokugawa shogunate that ruled Japan for 265 years. But it is likely that Oda Nobunaga did not come up in your mind, the man who unified Japan and became its de facto leader. His talent as a conqueror was so famous that in Japanese proverbs, Tokugawa Ieyasu–the man who actually formed the Tokugawa shogunate–was known to be a man who waited for his chance while Nobunaga was presented as a vicious warrior. So how did Nobunaga revolutionize Japanese warfare and unify Japan?
Portrait of Oda Nobunaga
Early Life
Born in 1534 as the son of a local feudal lord in Owari (Nagoya in modern-day Japan), Nobunaga was not destined for greatness. His clan, the Oda Clan, was constantly threatened by larger clans such as the Imagawa clan and the Saito clan. Not only that, but he was also infamous for being given the nickname Owari no Outsuke (“the Fool of Owari”). His nickname originated from the fact that he carried weapons without etiquette and often wore eccentric clothing that was considered unfit. His derogatory nickname would be further cemented at the time of his father’s death when he was only 17. In a time when he needed to display leadership, especially since his younger brother was considered by some to be a better ruler, he turned up to his father’s funeral without proper attire and threw incense (or his father’s ashes according to some) on the Buddhist altar. While many consider this move to be simply one of idiocy, some Japanese historians such as Owada Tetsuo surmised that this move was a deliberate act for his enemies to underestimate him. It was also during his early life when he befriended Tokugawa Ieyasu, the man who would unify Japan after his death.
Ukiyo-e of Oda Nobunaga that portrayed him as a rebellious individual, as he clothed himself in eccentric clothes
Consolidation of power
Despite his antics, Nobunaga still inherited the leadership of the Oda clan. However, both his brother and his cousin, Oda Nobuyuki and Nobutomo, would attempt to rebel against his leadership. His leadership was perceived as even more fragile when his mentor, teacher, and paternal figure Hirate Masahide committed seppuku (“ritualistic suicide”), to strike sense into him. Some historians, such as Kuwata Tadachika, view this moment as a turning point that turned Nobunaga from a boy into a man. However, historians such as Kawakatsu Heita believe this moment to be a tragedy, as even his closest allies perceived him as weak after this. Nevertheless, Nobunaga was a changed man after the suicide: he killed his cousin as he took control of Kiyosu castle and went on to defeat and spare his brother. He would eventually execute his brother when Nobuyuki plotted to overthrow him again. Later on, his secured his power within the kingdom as any survivors of the rebellion, such as Shibata Katsuie, were absorbed into his clan.
The Battle of Okehazama
Threats beyond Nobunaga’s kingdom were also present in this period. Imagawa Yoshimoto, one of the most powerful warlords at the time, marched westward towards Kyoto to establish himself as the de facto ruler of Japan in 1560. Analyzing Japanese geography, one realizes one must go through Owari (now Nagoya) in order to reach Kyoto, and Yoshimoto did just that. Imagawa Yoshimoto’s armies immediately crushed two of Nobunaga’s fortresses, leading many to expect the same outcome for Nobunaga’s castle, especially as Nobunaga only held one twelfth of the soldiers that Yoshimoto did. However, Yoshimoto decided to pause his advance to celebrate an early victory with his soldiers. This led to a drunken party, which some sources claim was ordered by Nobunaga himself as he sent alcohol to their camp. Nevertheless, the unprepared and drunk army of Yoshimoto was left vulnerable as a storm encroached on its position. It was then that Nobunaga ambushed Yoshimoto’s army from a steep hill, killing Imagawa Yoshimoto in the process. The stunning victory not only freed Tokugawa Ieyasu from Yoshimoto rule, but Nobunaga was now no longer a “fool” but rather a powerful warlord.
The Battle of Okehazama
Nobunaga extends his power
Following the battle, Nobunaga would claim further power by expanding into the Mino Province and defeating the Saito clan. His intent to unify Japan was ostentatiously displayed when he captured the Inabayama castle in 1567; after the fall of the Saito clan, who lived in the castle, he renamed the castle Gifu castle and adopted the seal “Tenka Fubu”. The “Gi” within the “Gifu” points to the location where the Zhou Dynasty in China began, hinting at the start of a new dynasty. Equally, the Tenka Fubu (“to rule all above the sky with the force of arms”) manifested his intentions within Japan. In the very next year, Nobunaga would install Ashikaga Yoshiaki as the Shogun in Kyoto, becoming the de facto ruler of Japan. However, it is important to note that he could never become a Shogun himself, as his lineage was considered not noble enough.
The Tenka Fubu seal
Threats to his power
Nobunaga’s expansion of power led to opposition. The warrior monks of Japan especially disliked Nobunaga’s rule for its violence, as they believed that Japan should be ruled by an egalitarian religious leader. Thus, they were known to side with Nobunaga’s enemies such as the Azai clan while also sheltering his enemies. Nobunaga did not take kindly to these actions, as he viewed the religious side of Japan as a threat to his rule. He would later besiege Buddhist temple complexes and order indiscriminate killing, resulting in the death of at least 40,000 citizens within 10 years.
Nobunaga burned down the Hiei Mountain complex, killing 20,000 people (including citizens) in this atrocity.
In addition to Buddhist monks, other warlords such as Takeda Katsuyori were also unhappy with Nobunaga’s rule. The Takeda clan was known to possess the best cavalry in the country as Takeda Shingen, Katsuyori’s father, trained one of the first large cavalry units in Japan that allowed its armies to easily overwhelm ashigaru (“foot soldiers”) which were more common in the period. In fact, the Takeda clan’s power was so well known that its armies were compared to proverbs from Sun Tzu (“fast as the wind, silent as the forest, fierce as fire, and immovable as a mountain”). Therefore, when they attacked, the Takeda clan easily captured Takatenjin castle which was owned by the Tokugawa clan at the time. However, the rapid advance was soon stopped by Nobunaga’s tactics. He used matchlock guns, which were only introduced 30 years earlier. His strategy was comparable to that of proto-trench warfare, as he set up bamboo barriers and ditches in front of his gunmen who took turns to fire at the cavalry. The result of this innovative tactic was extraordinary: the Oda and Tokugawa clans had a casualty of 1,000 soldiers, whereas the Takeda clan had casualties up to 10,000 men, including major generals. The battle not only displayed the Oda clan’s revolutionary tactics, but it also showed cavalry strength was no longer dominant within Japan, eventually leading to the collapse of the Takeda clan in 1582.
The Battle of Nagashino
The death of Oda Nobunaga
Nobunaga’s rapid rise in Japan was met with a faster fall from grace. In 1582, while he only had around a dozen guards in the Honno-ji temple, he was betrayed by Mitsuhide Akechi, one of his generals. Mitsuhide’s reason for betrayal is not completely known; however, it is believed that Mitsuhide was motivated to seize power, get revenge (Mitsuhide had been humiliated by Nobunaga by being beaten in front of his peers), and also due to his fear of Nobunaga. His fear of Nobunaga is surmised by some to be the biggest cause of his betrayal, as Nobunaga was known to be ruthless: he had even forced Tokugawa Ieyasu to order his son to commit seppuku as his daughter-in-law allegedly had ties with the Takeda clan three years ago. Furthermore, this fear grew as he slowly lost his power through reassignments by Nobunaga.
Whatever the reason, Mitsuhide stormed the temple with around 13,000 men. Despite Nobunaga’s best efforts fighting with his bow, he soon retreated to the center of the temple. There, he committed seppuku and his body was burnt. The lack of confirmation of Nobunaga’s death without a body, along with Nobunaga’s plethora of loyal subjects, led to Mitsuhide’s supposed rule only lasting 11 days. He was defeated by Toyotomi Hideyoshi and killed by bandits as he attempted to flee from Hideyoshi’s army.
The ambush of Honno-ji— on the right is Oda Nobunaga committing seppuku, the middle is Mitsuhide attempting to kill him, and on the left is Ranmaru, Nobunaga’s closest ally, that fought and died with him on the day.
The power vacuum left by Nobunaga’s fall eventually led to Toyotomi Hideyoshi seizing power. However, after Hideyoshi’s death, Tokugawa Ieyasu, who had waited for both of their deaths, emerged as a successor. His decisive victory in the Battle of Sekigahara against Hideyoshi’s son Hideyori consolidated his power, while Hideyori’s death in the siege of Osaka led to the domination of power by the Tokugawa family.
In the end, Oda Nobunaga’s death was fitting for a man like him. His life was filled with violence and burning temples like the one he had died in. Much like his early rise to power, his death came rapidly when he was only forty-seven (in comparison, Tokugawa Ieyasu would live to seventy-three). His last act also contributed to the downfall of his enemy, as his remains were never found. He even acknowledges this fact in his favorite line from a play, which he is believed to have said before his death. He quotes, “A human life lasts only fifty years; compared to the time since heaven and earth began, it is but a dream, an illusion.”
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