When you think of Japan today, its strength lies in technology and exports, especially in the automobile industry. However, there was a period in Japan where trade was banned; in fact, communication with those outside the country and the spread of Christianity was so despised that the Tokugawa shogunate built a “Dejima” , or an artificial island, in 1636, where all trade was conducted between the Japanese and the Dutch. So, how did the actions of one American man bring Japan into the world of national commerce, despite being a country that so firmly believed in isolationist policies?
The arrival of Matthew Perry
In 1853, Matthew Perry, by President Fillmore’s order, arrived at the Japanese coasts near Edo (modern-day Tokyo) with the “kuro-fune”, or black ships.While his reason was never explicitly stated, the cause of his arrival is believed to be a combination of factors. The first cause of the expedition was to explore fiscal opportunities as a trade hub with Japan will not only boost income, it would also allow for the safe passage of ships travelling to China from the newly annexed California which was believed to be profitable as China was known for its unique tea, porcelain and silk quality. Furthermore, the American government also wanted an official protection agreement for any sailors that were left stranded in Japan. Wreckages, such as the one portrayed in the novel Shogun, were common near Japan due to its infamous weather conditions. Therefore, the government wanted a treaty that would protect sailors from persecution and even execution in some cases when they wrecked near Japan. Finally, in the era of colonialism, it was increasingly important to counteract the influence of other superpowers in East and South-East Asia as the US, Britain, France, and Russia all desired greater control over the area.
Once on the coast, a letter from President Fillmore himself was delivered to the Tokugawa shogunate demanding trade, humane treatment of wreckage survivors, and diplomatic relations . Importantly, Perry would shoot blank shots that displayed his peaceful intent, whilst similarly highlighting that the American superior arsenal that threatened the government. Perry simply stated that these shots were fired as a means of celebration for the day of independence, as it was July 8th, 1853. However, the 12th Shogun of the Shogunate, Tokugawa Ieyoshi, was ill at the time, causing indecision on the government’s part. Thus, Perry gave Japan an ultimatum, promising to return the next year in 1854 after his trip to Hong Kong and expecting an answer by that time.
Perry came back to Japan only half a year later in 1854 with a bigger fleet. However, within the 6 months, the leadership of Japan was in further uncertainty as Tokugawa Ieyoshi had died by then, and Tokugawa Iesada, who had replaced him, was known to be both mentally and physically unfit to rule. Thus, negotiations were held in modern-day Yokohama in private, so that the negotiations could be kept from the public, who had already developed anti-shogunate sentiments. In the Kanagawa agreement of 1854, Perry was partly given what he wanted. Japan opened two ports in Shimoda and Hakodate, promised to protect any wreckage survivors, and gave the US a consulate. This was also partly due to Perry’s fear-cultivating tactics, as he fired real shots at the sea and he also displayed technological superiority by driving locomotives that were not used within Japan.
By 1858, however, pressure on Japan mounted as other superpowers demanded open trade and the US demanded a greater trade allowance. While Perry was no longer a part in opening up Japan as he passed away in 1858 due to severe alcoholism, other individuals, such as Townsend Harris, reengaged in negotiations. This resulted in Japan acquiescing to sign an agreement with the US in the form of the Harris Treaties of 1858. The agreements were as follows: five more ports were opened within Japan, tariffs were fixed at 5% for the benefit of US traders, freedom of religion for foreigners and US citizens within Japan to be subject to US law. All of these treaties were despised as the low tariffs encouraged a sudden influx of goods that destabilized the Japanese economy and the Japanese lack of jurisdiction led to the ignorance of local laws. Similarly, the freedom of religion was unpopular to the large Buddhist/Shinto population that had rejected Christianity previously. The lack of Japanese jurisdiction would become evidently problematic in 1862 when Charles Richardson, a British merchant, stood in front of a Regent’s procession, (which was considered extremely disrespectful and illegal). A local Samurai attacked Richardson, killing him on the spot, which led to a war between the Satsuma clan, who employed the samurai, and the British Empire.
This situation was further exacerbated when the Harris treaty agreements were expanded to include Britain, France, the Netherlands, and Russia, and the general populace discovered that these treaties were signed without imperial agreement. This led to the anti-Tokugawa Shogunate slogan “Sonno joi”,or translated directly, “revere the emperor and get rid of the barbarians (foreigners)”. Dissent from anti-shogunate samurai triggered by these treaties would eventually lead to a great purge by the government, silencing intellectuals and major leaders such as Tokugawa Nariaki, who was a direct family member of the Shogun. This would lead to further chaos when the leader of the Purge, Li Naosuke, was assassinated by anti-shogun samurai in 1860. This event was a testament to the weakness of the government, proving that they were unable to protect their own people.
Following these events, the rival clans Satsuma and Chosu, brokered by Ryoma Sakamoto, would form a powerful alliance to overthrow the Tokugawa Shogunate in 1866. By 1868, the two clans and imperialists formed a force that overthrew the Shogunate despite its best efforts to reform. The revolution was relatively peaceful, mainly due to figures such as Saigo Takamori in the imperialist army who minimized casualties and gained access to key areas such as the Edo (Tokyo) castle, which the imperial family continues to live in to this day, without any bloodshed. After the revolution, the power to rule Japan was quickly restored to the imperial family in the Meiji restoration, which declared the Meiji Emperor as a living God— a practice that would continue till the Japanese defeat in WW2.
The arrival of Commodore Perry marked the start of a new era in Japan. The treaties following its arrival not only directly reduced the Shogunate’s power, but also set in motion a series of events that would end a two-century period of Shogun rule in Japan. In this sense, the arrival of Mathew Perry in 1853 was the spark for modernisation in Japan.
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Beasley, W. G. The Meiji Restoration. Stanford University Press, 1972.
Gordon, Andrew. A Modern History of Japan: From Tokugawa Times to the Present. 3rd ed., Oxford University Press, 2014.
Jansen, Marius B. The Making of Modern Japan. Harvard University Press, 2000.
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